Streamers:

Collected by hand from Axiom, or entered by hand.

@book{Rees1973,
editor={Rees, J. A.},
title={Electrical Breakdown in Gases},
publisher={John Wiley \& Sons},
year={1973}
}

@book{Sturrock1994,
author={Sturrock, Peter A.},
title={Plasma Physics: an introduction to the theory of astrophysical, geophysical, and laboratory plasmas},
publisher={Cambridge University Press},
year={1994}
}

@book{Meek1978,
editor={Meek, J. M. and Craggs, J. D.},
title={Electrical Breakdown of Gases},
publisher={John Wiley \& Sons},
year={1978}
}

@book{Chapman1980,
editor={Chapman, B. N},
title={Glow discharge processes},
publisher={John Wiley \& Sons},
year={1980}
}



@book{Chamberlain1978,
author={Chamberlain, J. W.},
title={Theory of planetary atmospheres},
publisher={Academic Press},
address={New York},
year={1978}
}

@book{Llewellyn-Jones1966,
author={Llewellyn-Jones, F.},
title={The Glow Discharge},
publisher={Methuen \& Co.},
year={1966}
}

@book{Goldstein1980,
author={Goldstein, H.},
title={Classical Mechanics},
edition={Second},
publisher={Addison Wesley},
year={1980}
}

@article{DhaliFeb85,
author={Dhali, S.K. and Williams, P.F.},
title={Numerical simulation of streamer propagation in nitrogen at atmospheric pressure},
journal={Physical Review A (General Physics)},
volume={31},
number={2},
pages={1219-21},
year={1985},
abstract={Results of the application of flux-corrected transport technique to a
two-dimensional numerical simulation of streamer propagation are presented.
Characteristics such as diameter, velocity, shape, and density gradient of the
head, and ionization in the body of the propagating streamer are determined.
These results provide new insight into streamer propagation}
}

@article{RaizerNov98,
author={Raizer, Yu.P. and Milikh, G.M. and Shneider, M.N. and Novakovski, S.V.},
title={Long streamer in the upper atmosphere above thundercloud},
journal={Journal of Physics D (Applied Physics)},
volume={31},
number={22},
pages={3255-64},
year={1998},
abstract={It has been suggested that optical flashes observed in the upper
atmosphere above giant thunderstorms (red sprites) are due to streamers. Such
streamers are initiated in the lower ionosphere by electron patches caused by
electromagnetic radiation from horizontal intracloud lightning and then develop
downward in the static electric field due to the thundercloud. The triggering
conditions of streamer development are analysed. Using similarity relations,
known characteristics of streamer tips obtained earlier in laboratory
conditions are extended to a description of streamers in rare air. Streamer
growth in the nonuniform atmosphere is calculated. It is shown that streamers
first appear at a height of about 80 km and then grow downward to slightly
below 50 km, where they are terminated. This is in agreement with red sprite
observations. An altitude distribution of the streamer generated plasma is
obtained. The simple models of streamer development presented in this paper
could be applied for computations of streamers growing in other conditions}
}
@article{6539739,
author={{Pasko V.P.} and {Inan U.S.} and {Bell T.F.}},
title={Fractal structure of sprites},
journal={Geophysical Research Letters},
volume={27},
number={4},
pages={497-500},
year={2000},
abstract={A large scale model of sprites based on a phenomenological
probabilistic approach to modeling of streamer corona discharges is developed.
The model utilizes the experimentally documented macroscopic properties of
positive and negative streamer coronas in air and allows a realistic
determination of the propagation of multiple breakdown branches in a
self-consistent electric field. The model results reproduce the large scale
volumetric shapes of sprites, agree with the experimentally documented
thundercloud charge moment changes in sprites producing cloud to ground
lightning discharges (CGs), and demonstrate fundamental asymmetries between
sprites generated by CGs of positive and negative polarity}
}
@article{6403250,
author={{Drabkin M.M.}},
title={Protection zone of the charge transfer system},
journal={Proceedings of 11th International Symposium on High-Voltage Engineering (ISH 99)},
volume={},
number={},
pages={423-5 vol.2},
year={1999},
abstract={Replacing the conventional lightning rod by a charge transfer system
(CTS) improves significantly the lightning protection of structures against
direct lightning strokes. The typical CTS consists of four major parts: an
ionizer, a grounding system, a ground current collector and a grounding
conductor connecting the ionizer to the grounding system. The protective
performance of the CTS is based on a well known phenomenon, point-discharge
current, when sharp edged objects such as grass, leaves, edges of structures,
etc.. exposed to the electric field, start to emit current into the surrounding
air. A space charge generated by the CTS under influence of the electric field
of a thundercloud reduces the electric field strength at and below the CTS
location. This reduced electric field strength makes the lightning discharge
path between the tip of the lightning leader and the CTS the least preferable
one from all other alternatives. However, when the electric field change is
faster than the CTS response, a strong moving upward streamer is formed, and
that creates the preferable path for lightning discharge into the CTS. That
means that compared to the performance of a lightning rod, the CTS is able to
collect lightning strokes from a larger area and has, therefore, bigger zone of
protection. The paper offers a method of calculation of the protection zone for
the CTS}
}
@article{6070870,
author={{Allen N.L.} and {Cornick K.J.} and {Faircloth D.C.} and {Kouzis C.M.}},
title={Tests of the `early streamer emission' principle for protection against lightning},
journal={IEE Proceedings-Science, Measurement and Technology},
volume={145},
number={5},
pages={200-6},
year={1998},
abstract={Experiments are described which are designed to test two devices
based on the `early streamer emission' (ESE) principle, for lightning
protection, against the traditional Franklin rod. In all three cases, the
device was subjected to a steady negative electric field from a sphere,
simulating the field beneath a thundercloud, prior to application of a
superimposed negative impulse field, simulating the field due to the downward
leader. The first device consisted of a vertical rod to which a subsidiary 1/50
mu s positive impulse voltage, variable up to 40 kV peak, could be applied with
varying delays from the start of the negative impulse field. Energising of the
rod was thus independent of the applied negative field. The second device was a
commercial product, energising of which was controlled by its own power supply.
Sparkover voltages in the sphere/device gaps and times to breakdown were
measured. It is shown that the ESE devices showed a small advantage, in time to
breakdown, over the Franklin rod}
}
@article{6617727,
author={{Moore C.B.} and {Aulich G.D.} and {Rison W.}},
title={Measurements of lightning rod responses to nearby strikes},
journal={Geophysical Research Letters},
volume={27},
number={10},
pages={1487-90},
year={2000},
abstract={Following Benjamin Franklin's invention of the lightning rod, based
on his discovery that electrified objects could be discharged by approaching
them with a metal needle in hand, conventional lightning rods in the U.S. have
had sharp tips. However, the role of the sharp tip in causing a lightning rod
to act as a strike receptor has been questioned leading to experiments in which
pairs of various sharp-tipped and blunt rods have been exposed beneath
thunderclouds to determine the better strike receptor. After seven years of
tests, none of the sharp Franklin rods or of the so-called "early streamer
emitters" has been struck, but 12 blunt rods with tip diameters ranging from
12.7 mm to 25.4 mm have taken strikes. Our field experiments and our analyses
indicate that the strike-reception probabilities of Franklin's rods are greatly
increased when their tips are made moderately blunt}
}
@article{6617727,
author={{Moore C.B.} and {Aulich G.D.} and {Rison W.}},
title={Measurements of lightning rod responses to nearby strikes},
journal={Geophysical Research Letters},
volume={27},
number={10},
pages={1487-90},
year={2000},
abstract={Following Benjamin Franklin's invention of the lightning rod, based
on his discovery that electrified objects could be discharged by approaching
them with a metal needle in hand, conventional lightning rods in the U.S. have
had sharp tips. However, the role of the sharp tip in causing a lightning rod
to act as a strike receptor has been questioned leading to experiments in which
pairs of various sharp-tipped and blunt rods have been exposed beneath
thunderclouds to determine the better strike receptor. After seven years of
tests, none of the sharp Franklin rods or of the so-called "early streamer
emitters" has been struck, but 12 blunt rods with tip diameters ranging from
12.7 mm to 25.4 mm have taken strikes. Our field experiments and our analyses
indicate that the strike-reception probabilities of Franklin's rods are greatly
increased when their tips are made moderately blunt}
}
@article{6233798,
author={{Petrov N.I.} and {Petrova G.N.}},
title={Physical mechanisms for the development of lightning discharges between a thundercloud and the ionosphere},
journal={Zhurnal Tekhnicheskoi Fiziki},
volume={69},
number={4},
pages={134-7},
year={1999},
abstract={An investigation is made of the influence of changes in atmospheric
pressure with altitude and the thundercloud geometry on the development of
lightning propagating upward to the ionosphere. It is shown that the mechanism
for the development of high-altitude lightning does not differ from that for
the formation and propagation of ordinary lightning between a thundercloud and
the ground. It is established that high-altitude lightning forms as a result of
a reduction in pressure with altitude and can only take place from
thunderclouds located at high altitudes}
}
@article{6086667,
author={{Yukhimuk V.} and {Roussel-Dupre R.A.} and {Symbalisty E.M.D.} and {Taranenko Y.}},
title={Optical characteristics of blue jets produced by runaway air breakdown, simulation results},
journal={Geophysical Research Letters},
volume={25},
number={17},
pages={3289-92},
year={1998},
abstract={The results of numerical calculations of the intensity and spectra of
optical emissions from blue jets produced by runaway air breakdown in the
atmosphere are presented. It is found that a positive runaway streamer develops
in the altitude range 20-34 km following an intracloud discharge that possesses
a continuing current of ~1.7 kA. The ionization front of the runaway streamer
propagates upward with a velocity ~90 km/s and produces optical emissions with
a maximum intensity ~400 kR and a duration ~153 ms. The comparison between
theory and observation yields good agreement for such important blue jet
characteristics as maximum intensity of optical emissions, color, front
velocity, duration, maximum radius and vertical dimensions and supports the
viability of runaway air breakdown as a driving mechanism for this particular
type of high altitude discharge}
}